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APES Laws and agreements

Migration

Code: 

  • Anything ending in progress"a" is an act of Congress
  • Anything ending in "ES" involves endangered species
  • Any "protocol" is an international agreement
Critical laws and agreements by date:

1963 (revised several times since) Clean Air Act (CAA): Includes provisions for:
-Providing resources to study air in order to inquest about the issue of atmospheric pollutants.
-Setting enforceable regulations to limit emissions from stationary and mobile sources.
-Developing programs to monitor and reduce acid deposition
-Establishing a program to phase out the use of chemicals that deplete stratospheric O3
-Establishing a cap and trade (a system in which maximum allowable emissions are set for each industry; businesses that reduce their emissions to below the standards are awarded credits which they can sell to other businesses within their industry, creating economic incentive for reducing emissions).

1970 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA): One of the first pieces of environmental legislation in the United States, NEPA was written to promote the idea of sustainability.

-Environmental Impact Statement (EIS): Any major federal agency must submit an EIS for any activity that may have a harmful impact on the environment.
-1970 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Formed under the Nixon Administration with the primary purpose of protecting human health and the environment and enforce environmental standards under a variety of state and local environmental laws.

1972 (revised several times since) Clean Water Act (CWA): A response to the 1969 Cuyahoga River catching fire in Cleveland, Ohio. Its mission is to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of Americaʼs waterways and make them “fishable and swimmable.” Provisions intended to reduce and prevent point and non-point sources of water pollution, although there are no provisions regarding groundwater protection.

1973 Endangered Species Act (ESA): A far-reaching act that provides protection for any species that is determined to be threatened with extinction. Provisions include strict enforcement of habitat protection, a ban on any activity which disturbs or endangers the life of a listed species, and a ban on the import or export of any individual organisms or product derived from an endangered species.

1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES): A multilateral treaty ensuring that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild and accords varying degrees of protection for more than 33,000 species.

1974 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA): Focuses on maintaining the purity of any water source that may potentially be used as drinking water, including both surface and groundwater.

1976 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA): Also called the “Cradle-to-Grave Act,” sets specific regulations concerning the manufacture, transport, storage, use, and disposal of a host of hazardous chemicals. Its major provision requires extensive documentation at every step to ensure the hazardous wastes are disposed of properly.

1980 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA): Also called the Superfund Act, established to handle industrial contamination in sites where no direct individual or party could be help responsible. Imposed a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries and authorized the federal government to respond to the release of hazardous substances. Also created a trust fund for cleaning hazardous waste sites when no responsible party could be identified.

1987 Montreal Protocol: A global effort and one of the greatest environmental success stories to date. Provisions include requiring participating nations to phase out the use of ozone-depleting chemicals (specifically CFCs) in favor of less harmful alternatives.

1997 Kyoto Protocol: Developed at a world summit to address measures for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. No real progress was made; when the US announced it would not sign the protocol the whole movement lost support.


Recall our first week together: Cause and effect: 8 countries

Think of this as we go over the main laws:

APES Laws: Their evolution: Notice trends, cause and effect (disaster->response)

Air pollution laws:

  • Event cause: 1948 Donora PA smog event, killed 20, thousands sick, London Smog Disaster 1952, killed 4000, 10,000 sick. What is common? Air
  • What if we do nothing?: Humans die, many diseases, health care issues, kids are sick, everyone lives shorter lives
  • Impact: Each country creates laws regulating LOCAL air pollution (see also criteria pollutants)

Donora PA smog event, 1948: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Donora_smog

London smog disaster, 1952: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Smog_of_London

1. **Air Pollution Control Act of 1955**: (note just after the London smog disaster) This was the first federal legislation addressing air pollution. It provided funding for research and technical assistance to address air pollution problems.

(response to both Donora and London events)

2. **Clean Air Act of 1963**: CAA This act expanded federal government involvement in air pollution control and funded research on air pollution control technologies. However, it lacked specific regulatory authority.

See question #2 in PR practice exam #2

3. **Clean Air Act of 1970**:   (NEPA and the EPA were formed then-why then?) This was a landmark piece of legislation that established comprehensive federal air quality regulations. It authorized the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for pollutants harmful to public health and the environment, such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and particulate matter. It also mandated state implementation plans (SIPs) to achieve and maintain compliance with these standards.

Note the definition of criteria pollutants: SOx, NOx, PM, Pb, O3, CO

4. **Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977**: These amendments strengthened the regulatory framework of the Clean Air Act by tightening emission standards for automobiles and industrial sources, establishing new requirements for non-attainment areas (areas that do not meet NAAQS), and introducing provisions for Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) of air quality.

5. **Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990**: These amendments represented a significant overhaul of the Clean Air Act. They addressed acid rain, urban air pollution, toxic air emissions, and ozone depletion. Key provisions included the establishment of a cap-and-trade program for sulfur dioxide emissions to address acid rain, tighter vehicle emissions standards, and the creation of the Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) program to regulate emissions of toxic air pollutants.

6. **The Clear Skies Initiative (2002)**: Proposed by the George W. Bush administration, this initiative aimed to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and mercury from power plants. However, it faced criticism and did not pass Congress.

7. **The Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR) (2005)**: This rule, promulgated by the EPA under the authority of the Clean Air Act, aimed to reduce interstate transport of air pollution, particularly sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, by imposing emissions caps on power plants in affected states. It was later replaced by the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR) in 2011.

8. **The Clean Power Plan (2015)**: This was an Obama-era initiative aimed at reducing carbon dioxide emissions from existing power plants. It aimed to accelerate the transition to cleaner energy sources and was intended to help the United States meet its commitments under the Paris Agreement on climate change. However, it faced legal challenges and was ultimately repealed by the Trump administration.

Note that when party in power (Democrats or Republicans) changes, often so do laws and regulations. This goes back to 1981 when President Reagan (R) said "government is not the solution it is the problem", ushering in the era of "de-regulation" that goes back and forth even today.

Water Pollution laws:

  • Event cause: What is common about Santa Barbara Oil spill, Cuyahoga River fire, toxic Potomac river, and dead Lake Erie? Water
  • What if we do nothing?: No fish, sick humans, shorter life spans, dead wildlife
  • Impact: National laws regarding waterways, drinking water and waste dumping

1. **Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899**: (what was going on in London and other river cities then?)

   - While primarily focused on navigation and the protection of waterways, this legislation included provisions aimed at preventing the discharge of refuse into navigable waters without a permit, marking an early recognition of the need for water pollution control.

2. **Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948**:

   - This was the first major U.S. law to address water pollution. It provided funding for research and technical assistance but lacked regulatory authority.

Notice the theme:" research and technical assistance". What was happening in the US in 1948?

3. **Clean Water Act of 1972**: CWA. (why then? Potomac river, Lake Erie, Cuyahoga River, Santa Barbara)

   - The Clean Water Act (CWA) is the primary federal law governing water pollution. It established the basic structure for regulating pollutant discharges into U.S. waters and set ambitious goals for eliminating pollutants from discharge into navigable waters by 1985.

4. **Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974**: SWDA

   - While primarily focused on regulating drinking water quality, this law also addresses the protection of underground sources of drinking water from contamination, particularly from underground injection activities.

How does fracking work into this? Note this is different from surface waters...

5. **Ocean Dumping Ban Act of 1988**:

   - This law amended the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act to prohibit the dumping of municipal sewage sludge and industrial waste into the ocean.

6. **Water Quality Act of 1987**:

   - This legislation amended the Clean Water Act to address nonpoint source pollution, establishing grant programs and requiring states to develop management programs for controlling such pollution.

7. **Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health (BEACH) Act of 2000**:

   - This law aimed to protect public health and improve water quality at beaches by requiring states to develop beach monitoring and notification programs.

This is why you get brown water alerts about our beaches...

8. **Water Infrastructure Funding and Improvement Act (WIFIA) of 2014**:

   - This act established a federal loan and loan guarantee program to help finance water infrastructure projects, including those aimed at improving water quality and wastewater treatment.

9. **Recent Initiatives**:

   - In recent years, there has been increased attention on emerging contaminants, such as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and efforts to address the impacts of climate change on water resources.

(Know these: PFAS include teflon, gore-tex and many others)

Waste:

  • Event Cause: Love Canal toxic soil, kids got sick. Common element: Waste
  • What if we do nothing?: National pollution, many people sick, shorter lifespans
  • Impact: National laws regarding toxic waste

1. **Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976**: Cradle to grave act

   - RCRA is the primary federal law governing the management of solid and hazardous waste in the United States.

   - It established a cradle-to-grave regulatory system for tracking hazardous waste from generation to disposal.

2. **Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980 (Superfund)**:

Know one example besides Love canal (look one up, make it yours)

   - CERCLA, commonly known as Superfund, addresses the cleanup of hazardous waste sites and the liability for environmental contamination.

   - It established a trust fund to finance the cleanup of abandoned or uncontrolled hazardous waste sites where responsible parties could not be identified or were unable to pay.

3. **Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) of 1984**:

   - These amendments to RCRA strengthened regulations for hazardous waste management, including requirements for hazardous waste minimization, land disposal restrictions, and corrective action for releases from hazardous waste treatment, storage, and disposal facilities.

4. **Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) of 1976**: TOSCA

   - While primarily focused on regulating the manufacture, distribution, and use of chemicals, TSCA also addresses the management of chemical wastes.

Climate change:

  • Event Cause: raising global temperatures, no place is immune, ocean level rise, migration patterns changing, severe weather, etc. Common element: Global Warming
  • What if we do nothing? see above, more of the same, even worse
  • Impact: global agreements around climate change (or not)

1. **United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)**:

   - Adopted in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, the UNFCCC is the foundational international treaty on climate change.  (why then? what did they know or see coming then?)

   - It aimed to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.

   - The UNFCCC established the Conference of the Parties (COP) as the supreme decision-making body, with the first COP held in 1995 in Berlin.

2. **Kyoto Protocol (1997)**: (did it work?)

   - The Kyoto Protocol was the first international treaty to set binding emission reduction targets for developed countries.

   - It required participating developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by an average of 5.2% below 1990 levels during the commitment period of 2008-2012.

   - The protocol established mechanisms such as emissions trading and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) to help countries meet their targets.

(why just the developed countries first?)

3. **Copenhagen Accord (2009)**: (what was the US position?)

   - The Copenhagen Accord emerged from the 15th UNFCCC COP held in Copenhagen, Denmark.

   - While not a legally binding treaty, it represented a political agreement among participating countries to limit global warming to below 2 degrees Celsius and to provide financial support to developing countries for climate mitigation and adaptation efforts.

4. **Paris Agreement (2015)**:

   - The Paris Agreement is considered a landmark global climate accord.

   - It was adopted at the 21st UNFCCC COP in Paris, France.

   - Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement is a bottom-up approach where each country sets its own nationally determined contributions (NDCs) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

(Self determined limits? Did this work?)

   - The agreement aims to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit it to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

Ozone:

  • Event Cause: Ozone hole discovered over Antarctica, skin cancer on the rise. Common element: Ozone
  • What if we do nothing?: UV radiation increases, plants die, human cancers, no life
  • Impact: Global agreement to ban CFCs and other chemicals

1. **Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985)**: (so they knew even in 1985 something was wrong-what did they know?

   - The Vienna Convention was the first international treaty aimed at addressing the depletion of the ozone layer.

   - It provided a framework for international cooperation and research on ozone depletion and established the principle that states have the responsibility to prevent activities that could harm the ozone layer.

2. **Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987)**: (Make sure you understand the difference between Montreal and Kyoto, also what gases are involved in each agreement)

   - The Montreal Protocol is widely regarded as one of the most successful environmental treaties. (why?)

   - It was adopted in response to growing scientific evidence of ozone depletion and established legally binding obligations for phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS), such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons.

4. **Vienna and Montreal Amendments (1995)**:

   - These amendments established controls on hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which were introduced as alternatives to CFCs but still had ozone-depleting potential.

(Know the difference between CFC and HCFC)

Endangered species:

  • Event Cause: endangered and invasive species detected over 100 years ago, increasing every year, human extinction era "anthropocene extinction event". Common theme: Invasive species and extinction
  • What if we do nothing?: Lack of biodiversity, native plants and animals gone, humans have no food
  • Impact: International and national laws regarding invasive and protected species

1. **Lacey Act of 1900 (United States)**: (over 124 years ago-why then?)

   - While primarily focused on preventing the illegal trade of wildlife, the Lacey Act was one of the earliest pieces of legislation aimed at protecting endangered species.

4. **Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (1973)**: CITES

   - CITES is one of the most comprehensive and widely recognized international agreements aimed at protecting endangered species from overexploitation due to international trade.

5. **Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 (United States)**:

   - It provides for the listing, protection, and recovery of threatened and endangered species and their habitats.

Pesticides:

  • Event Cause: Over 100 years ago, farmers killed using pesticides, no controls, runoff of pesticides destroying wildlife. Common theme: Pesticides and toxins
  • What if we do nothing?: species extinctions, humans sick, shorter lifespans
  • Impact: National laws regulating content and use of pesticides

1. **Federal Insecticide Act of 1910**: (Labeling for safety and quality control, even 114 years ago)
   - This was the first federal law regulating pesticides. It required that pesticide products be labeled with the ingredients used and their proportions but did not require premarket approval.

2. **Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) of 1947**: FIFRA
   - FIFRA repealed and replaced the Federal Insecticide Act of 1910.
   - It required the registration of all pesticides sold in interstate commerce and gave the USDA the authority to regulate pesticides.

3. **Amendments to FIFRA in 1972**:
   - These amendments transferred regulatory authority over pesticides from the USDA to the newly formed Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Summary: (GPT: "List important environmental laws and agreements")

Critical laws and agreements for environmental science encompass a wide range of issues, including air and water quality, biodiversity conservation, pollution prevention, and climate change mitigation. Here's a list of some key ones:

1. **Clean Air Act (United States)**:  CAA A comprehensive federal law aimed at controlling air pollution, including setting standards for air quality, regulating emissions from industrial sources and vehicles, and protecting the ozone layer.

2. **Clean Water Act (United States)**: CWA A federal law that regulates the discharge of pollutants into U.S. waters and aims to maintain and restore the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters.

3. **Endangered Species Act (United States)**: ESA A federal law designed to protect and recover endangered and threatened species and their habitats.

4. **Paris Agreement**: Paris Accord: climate changeAn international treaty under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) aimed at limiting global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

5. **Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)**:  CBD An international treaty aimed at promoting the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources.

6. **Montreal Protocol**: Montreal Protocol: Ozone An international treaty aimed at phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) to protect the ozone layer.

7. **Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)**: An international agreement aimed at ensuring that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.

8. **Kyoto Protocol**: Kyoto: Climate change An international treaty under the UNFCCC that sets binding targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, primarily from developed countries.

9. **United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)**: An international treaty aimed at stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.

10. **National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) (United States)**:  NEPA A federal law that establishes a national policy for protecting the environment and requires federal agencies to consider environmental impacts when making decisions.

These laws and agreements form the foundation of global environmental governance and play a critical role in addressing pressing environmental challenges and promoting sustainable development.

Nice summary here: https://elab.hpa.edu/apes/ap_exam_prep/laws/apenvirolaws.pdf

Quizlet here: https://quizlet.com/10948697/ap-environmental-laws-flash-cards/


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