2022 summary

apes D T Th

• summarize your cause and effect projects for presentation in day 2 of the week
• begin exploration of cause and effect
• begin readings from fr text chapter 1 (link below)

energy->water->food->culture

1. With energy you can move/purify water
2. With water you can grow food
3. With food you can maintain a culture

What is the "environment"?

• Front of ship fell off-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3m5qxZm_JqM
• "we towed it out into the environment"..."you mean into another environment"

Environment: Everything around us, including us

Climate change map-try this out:

https://impactlab.org/map/#usmeas=absolute&usyear=2080-2099&gmeas=absolute&gyear=1986-2005&usyear=1986-2005&gmeas=absolute&gyear=1986-2005

Nebraska->Alberta by 2050

Module 1 -------------

Fracking-know what it is? Why is it controversial? How has it changed how we generate electricity in our country? At what cost? Why is this politically important? Why are the solvents they use secret? What is the impact of these solvents on water?

Bio=life, so biotic means living, abiotic means not living (druids had a neat view on this)

How systems are defined enables us to create models of cause and effect (favorite topic of physicists and historians as well)

Module 2 ---------------

Environmental indicators: what we know and can observe that indicate the condition of a system

• Biodiversity
• Food production
• Global warming
• Human Population
• Resource depletion

Ecosystem services: can be economic, direct or cascading (fishing in the Gulf of Mexico impacted by offshore oil spills)

1. Biodiversity: biological diversity (more about this later)

1. Can you follow cause and effect?
2. What is their logical path?
3. Why do folks associate fossil fuels with global heating?
4. Who might be against this line of reasoning and why?
5. Fact: in ancient times, women were thrown into ponds to determine if they were witches. If the water "rejected them" they were possessed by the devil and therefore witches. If not, they just drowned. It is a wonder we made it this far.
6. Another example: cold fusion (look this up) Ponds and Fleishmann claimed they could replicate the processes in the sun (1 million degrees C) in a cooler on a table. 
7. Science is built on replication: if a process cannot be replicated, it cannot become part of the scientific "pyramid" of understanding. No bad blocks allowed.
8. Also key is taking notes (must be in pen, not pencil). Alfred Nobel invented dynamite. His brother's last words in his lab notebook, in pen were "I'm now going to compress the dynamite"
9. Why is there no Nobel prize for Mathematics?
   

• Variable: any difference, in a planned or "natural" experiment
  
• Independent variable: the part that does not change (like x in a graph)
  
• Dependent variable: the part that changes-or not
  
• Null hypothesis: proving something is NOT cause and effect (can sheep's bladders be used to predict earthquakes)
  
• Replication: everybody must be able to get the same results, using the same materials
  
• Sample size (n): must be large enough to be accurate
• Accuracy: close to truth or true value
• Precision: how close your results are to each other (gas pump is in 0.01liters, but your odometer is only in miles)
• Control group: those you DON'T mess with in the experiment (think of some drug test)

Natural experiment: variation not planned (Lahaina, COVID, Mount Pinatubo and cooling of the planet, etc.)

• Can you follow cause and effect?
• What is their logical path?
• Why do folks associate fossil fuels with global heating?
• Who might be against this line of reasoning and why?
• Fact: in ancient times, women were thrown into ponds to determine if they were witches. If the water "rejected them" they were possessed by the devil and therefore witches. If not, they just drowned. It is a wonder we made it this far.
• Another example: cold fusion (look this up) Pons and Fleishmann claimed they could replicate the processes in the sun (1 million degrees C) in a cooler on a table. Totally fake
• Science is built on replication: if a process cannot be replicated, it cannot become part of the scientific "pyramid" of understanding. No bad blocks allowed.
• Also key is taking notes (must be in pen, not pencil). Alfred Nobel invented dynamite. His brother's last words in his lab notebook, in pen were "I'm now going to compress the dynamite".
• Why is there no Nobel prize for Mathematics?
  

• Variable: any difference, in a planned or "natural" experiment
  
• Independent variable: the part that does not change (like x in a graph)
  
• Dependent variable: the part that changes-or not
  
• Null hypothesis: proving something is NOT cause and effect (can sheep's bladders be used to predict earthquakes)
  
• Replication: everybody must be able to get the same results, using the same materials
  
• Sample size (n): must be large enough to be accurate
• Accuracy: close to truth or true value
• Precision: how close your results are to each other (gas pump is in 0.01liters, but your odometer is only in miles)
• Control group: those you DON'T mess with in the experiment (think of some drug test)

Natural experiment: variation not planned (Lahaina, COVID, Mount Pinatubo and cooling of the planet, etc.)

Modules 9-11: Heat Energy: air and water

(fun with globes)

Modules 9-11 FR 3e (also module 22 in FR 4e)

Heat

Heat energy always moves from hot to cold (high energy to lower energy)

Heat energy moves in three "modes":

• conduction: from the latin word for "contact", objects touching
• convection: matter in motion, like hot air or steam rising
• radiation: infrared radiation below visible light on the spectrum

Conduction:

Materials can be excellent conductors of heat like silver, aluminum, copper and gold

Fun fact: Materials that are good conductors of heat are also good conductors of electricity

Insulators are materials that do not conduct well: styrofoam, pink panther insulation, cloth, rubber

Think of this: to pick up something very hot, what would you hold it with?

Convection:

Hotter fluids are less dense than cooler ones, causing upward migration of hot material 

Fun fact: everything in zero gravity needs a fan to cool (why?)

Convection can be blocked by covering hot objects, like the cover on your coffee or pot on the stove

You may have seen strange mirage like waves over something hot: this is convection of less dense air bending light

Radiation:

This is basically light, so can be reflected by foil, or any reflective material

Radiation is most effective at higher temperatures, one reason you can't see warm objects but can see red hot objects

This is also how snakes and other reptiles (or the alien in predator) see the tracks of their prey

This is one reason hot drinks are usually delivered in white cups: white reflects radiation better than black, which absorbs and re-radiates the energy (one part of the greenhouse effect)

Note that these are not the key ways your body cools during exercise: that is called "latent" (hidden) heat of vaporization

• When sweat evaporates, it takes with it lots of energy to do so, cooling you very efficiently
• Consider why some triathletes who come for the Kona Ironman (or others) have trouble here with the high humidity
• Higher humidity means less efficient evaporation.
• It also explains why 110°F in Phoenix might be tolerable if the humidity is very low

Lab: Heat transfer:

http://10.14.4.85:6875/books/ap-environmental-science/page/heat-transfer-lab

Module 9: Heating of the earth

Radiation from the sun hits the surface of the earth, which re-radiates this energy as longer wavelength infrared radiation.

(There is some heating of the atmosphere in both directions)

The atmosphere is divided into layers based on temperature, gases and density:

• Troposphere: at the surface, where all the action is
  • ozone layer-blocks UV light
• Stratosphere: where planes fly: cooler
• Mesosphere: "middle" layer
• Thermosphere: "hot" layer, fast (3/2kT) molecules (from radiation), low pressure 
• Exosphere: very low density, lots of radiation

(see layer diagram)

n.b. thermosphere is also known as the ionosphere (reflects radio waves), blocks nasty radiation from space, absorbs the energy from this radiation, gets hot

Now think of the three heat transfer modes:

Radiation: energy from the sun hitting the surface

Conduction: hot ground heats the air in contact with it

Convection: hot air rises, creating weather

Weather?

As air rises, it creates local low pressure areas, bringing in clouds and moisture (wind)

As this air rises, it cools, dropping moisture as rain or snow

This dry air circulates at high altitude until it transfers its heat to space (radiation and conduction) then descends as cooler, dry air

(see adiabatic cooling diagram)

This also happens if moist air is forced over a mountain range (remember the Waipio question?)

(see rain shadow diagram, module 22 FR4e)

The amount of heat the surface absorbs is based on reflectivity (recall radiation above)

Albedo is a measure of this reflectivity (think of Albus Dumbledore: white beard)

• Average albedo for the earth is about 30%
• Snow and ice are about 90%
• Water is about 35%
• Soil is about 15%
• Asphalt is about 5%
• Clouds vary in density from 10-90%

(see albedo diagram)

Fun fact: as global warming melts ice (high albedo) it turns into water (lower albedo), warming the planet more (positive feedback).

The place on the planet with the most average solar radiation is the equator, so air rises there (convection)

This creates the first of three cells: the Hadley cell

• As air moves towards the equator, it brings moisture (ITCZ)
• As this moist air rises, it cools and rain results
• The resulting dry air moves north and south away from the equator in the stratosphere
• This dry air descends creating deserts

Fun fact: on windy trade wind days your flight to the mainland is faster-why?

(see Hadley cell diagram)

Primitive meteorologists (weather folks) detected three of these cells:

• Hadley
• Ferrell
• Polar

To draw these, remember that when cells touch, air moves in the same direction: up-up or down-down

Biome impact:

Seasons:

The earth is tilted on its axis about 23.5° (get over it, it changes every 20,000 years)

Because of this, each hemisphere gets more or less solar radiation at certain times of the year.

We divide this (almost)circular motion into 4 points:

• Summer solstice: June 21 (summer for N hemisphere)
• Autumnal equinox ("equal night"): September 21 (today!)
• Winter solstice: December 21 (winter for N hemisphere)
• Vernal or spring equinox: March 21 (pagan festivals, etc.)

Australians have Christmas in their summer. Santa arrives by surfboard (true fact)

Fun fact: Pagans feared each winter that the days would just keep getting shorter and total darkness would result, so when they calculated winter festivals, they waited a week after the darkest day (December 21) to make sure the sun would come back.

This is why Christmas is December 25, not 21.

(see season diagram)

In Hawaii, we are below 23.5° latitude (find this on your globe), so for several months in our summer, the sun is actually NORTH of straight overhead. This is called "Lahaina noon".

Coriolis effect:

If you look at your globe from above (like some eskimo god), you will notice the radius at the equator is greater than at higher latitudes.

Actually, the tangential velocity (physics term) at the equator is about 1600 km/hr (1000 mph), while it is zero at the north pole.

As large storms stretch out with one end more south than the rest, it falls behind, creating the coriolis effect.

Demo: imagine dripping water (you, the eskimo god again) on the globe while it spins, which way would the water drip?

Oceans: wind and water

Surfers in California usually wear wetsuits.

Why?

Water along the California coast travels south from Alaska.

Remember this: oceans in the northern hemisphere travel clockwise

(opposite in the southern hemisphere)

Tough question: why are our trade winds from the NE not the North (Hadley cell)?

Verify on windy.com:

https://www.windy.com/?20.002,-155.533,5

There is one very interesting deep ocean current called the "thermohaline" circulation:

thermo=heat, haline=salty

Also known as the NADW or North Atlantic Deep Water:

Melting ice sheets in Greenland create dense, cool water that flows south along the ocean floor, and emerges in two places on the planet: India and KONA!

Ocean circulation: Up and down

The Andes run north and south from Peru to Chile as a result of tectonic plates going under South America from the west (more on this soon).

As a result, there is a deep trench off the coast of Peru and Chile

Looked at sideways from the south, as water rises from this deep trench it brings with it decomposed ocean creatures (detritus) that surface fish love to eat: happy fisherpeople

For this to happen, an offshore wind has to be strong.

This condition is called La Niña, and is an indicator of weather all over the planet

El Niño is when this wind becomes onshore, stopping the migration of fish food (sad fisherpeople)

(see sideways diagrams of La Niña and El Niño)

Better picture:

• Note that in the La Niña year, the "cell" is larger, stronger, and pulls more surface water away from Peru-Chile (happy fisherpeople)
  
• Look at the thermal image below, notice the cooler (deep) water coming off the coast of Chile in a La Niña year
• Note that in the El Niño year, the "cell" is smaller, weaker, and the offshore current is weaker (sad fisherpeople)
• Look at the thermal image for El Niño year: warmer (surface) water off the coast of Chile
• You might be interested in why there is a trench off the coast of Chile-it is the same reason the Andes mountains are in Chile...

Look:Here's what we learned so far:

Now look at this map, and compare with your trusty globe:
See the pattern?Traveling up a mountain is like crossing biomes. Check this out:Imagine driving from Hamakua or Hilo up to the summit of Mauna Kea: 
Tropical rain forest to temperate (mild) rain forest to boreal (north) forest to tundra. 
There is even a glacier up on Mauna Kea. Cool.
This would be like starting in the upper right corner of the diagram and moving diagonally down and to the left.
Now check out the planet again:

• Notice the horizontal bands. If you've read "Guns Germs and Steel" you know that humans migrated horizontally, so their crops and livestock would thrive in similar biomes. See? 
  
• Migrating north to south is tough.
  
• How is this changing?https://climate.nasa.gov/interactives/climate-time-machine
  

Now look at this:

These diagrams are how climatologists describe biomes without a cool map. 
Note the cool temp, so growth is determined by temp, not rainfall. Lots of snow here, and little liquid water for plants, so yeah, mainly snow and glaciers.
Contrast that with the boreal (north) forest:
Note the short growing season. 
Temperate (mild) seasonal forest actually has seasons:

• Deciduous trees can live here, like maple and oak. 
• It gets close to freezing, but no real dry season.

Woodland/shrubland is like much of southern California, or the Mediterranean. 
Wine can grow here. It is also known as the mediterranean (medi=middle, terra=earth) biome. 

• Note it never really freezes, but growth is determined by precipitation (blue line is below the red line). 
  
• This is also known as "chaparral" or the "fynbos" or "nice forest" in Afrikaans (South Africa). 
  
• There is also a notable University there...
• Look up the main wine regions of the world, they will fit this biome. Also consider how many Italians could start vineyards in northern California...
  

Temperate grassland/cold desert is a dry, grassy area, like Oklahoma, although it does get very cold there, so think more of Texas, or the Gobi desert. Again, growth is rain limited: (you may recall these are near Hadley/Ferrel cell subsidence, so dry air from space falls here). These areas tend to be far from large bodies of water, so they have more extreme temperatures than similar latitudes near water (e.g. Italy, France, California)

Tropical rainforest is the rainiest of them all, and much of our island has this near the shore. 
Africa and Brazil hold the next biome: Savanna or tropical seasonal forest. 

• Think of Madagascar (the film): not many large trees, room for animals to roam, lots of grass, happy lions, maybe a bossy penguin or two...Growth dependent on rainfall: (blue line below red one)
  

Finally, the subtropical desert biome, like what you'd see in the Sahara desert (another film), or most of Australia, the Atacama in Chile, the Mojave desert in California, and some of Mexico. 

• Note the Gobi desert is not on this list-too cold. Again, note these areas are where dry air subsides (falls) from the Hadley and Ferrell cells.
  

Biome Game:

Clues:
Find these places in the first three climatographs: Philadelphia, PennsylvaniaSan Diego, CaliforniaBelem, Brazil






Find these biomes below:

• tropical rain forest
  
• tropical savanna
  
• desert
  
• temperate grasslands
  
• temperate deciduous forest
  
• temperate rain forest
  
• boreal forest
  
• tundra
  

Find these biomes:

• Tropical Savanna 
  
• Temperate Grassland 
  
• Chaparral 
  
• Desert 
  
• Tundra 
  
• Taiga 
  
• Temperate Deciduous Forest 
  
• Tropical Rain Forest
  

LAB: Gambling with biomes

Gambling with biomes

1. Below is a list of locations around the world. Roll the dice and using your vast knowledge of biomes and the high tech globes on your desk, determine the biome and type of life you might find there.
2. In the next round reverse the process with the biome list below, determining the locations around the globe.

Locations:

1. Chile
2. Zambia
3. Philippines
4. Oklahoma
5. San Luis Obispo
6. Germany
7. Seattle
8. Greenland
9. Ontario Canada
10. Tunisia
11. North Pole
12. Kamuela

Biomes:

1. tundra
2. boreal forest
3. temperate rain forest
4. temperate seasonal forest
5. woodlands
6. temperate grassland
7. tropical rain forest
8. savannah
9. desert
10. cold desert
11. taiga
12. tropical seasonal forest

Aquatic Biomes: Module 3 (fr4e)

Limnotic=lakes
Productivity: note usually related to photosynthesis (plants)

Frog book: Chapter 6 Biomes and aquatic systems

Module 19: Plate Tectonics

• First, there was the big bang (see the cute video here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xzAOhyOtfqc)
  
• The only thing at first was Hydrogen, which is just a proton and an electron, sometimes a neutron making isotopes of Hydrogen
  
• Stars formed from this hydrogen, and through fusion created all of the elements up until Iron (Fe)
  
• Look this up on your periodic table------https://ptable.com/#Properties
  
• Eventually, these stars expanded and then collapsed...Smaller stars became neutron stars or various versions of these
  
• Huge ones (15x our sun size) exploded and created all of the elements after Fe (check the periodic table again)so,
  
• Any element in you below Fe on the table came from an exploding star cool...
  

• Our earth was molten for a long time, then cooled to become solid-mostly.
  
• Since it is also made up of Uranium and other things that combine to create heat, our planet is still really hot deep down.
  
• A minister named Ussher (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology) worked backwards from the molten state to solid state of the earth to guess that the earth was created one Sunday afternoon in 4004 BC.
  
• We was not stupid, he just did not know about Uranium, and our molten core...
  
• Here's what we know the earth to look like (check this out on your globes too):
  
• Layers: (onion boy)
  

Core-Mantle-Crust-think of an appleFor a size comparison:
The Core:

• The core is actually two bits: solid inner iron and nickel, liquid outside that bit. 
  
• It spins, giving us a weak magnetic field which switches direction every few thousand years. 
  
• Remember this, it comes up later...
  
• How do we know this? 
  
• Nuclear bomb testing and our global seismic sensor network.
  
• How?
  
• Two key clues about the earth came from military conflict: one from WWII and another from the cold war, when everyone was building bigger and bigger bombs.
  

We set up seismic sensors called seismographs all over the world to spy on Russian and Chinese nuclear ("A-Bomb", fission) and thermonuclear ("H-Bomb", Fusion) bomb testing to see how powerful they were.
You next need to know that there are two main types of earthquake wave: 
P or "primary" waves which are compression waves. and S waves "secondary waves" that are transverse, like shaking a slinky.
P waves are faster, and go through solids or liquids, but at slightly different velocities.
S waves are slower, and can only travel through solids.  So, here's what they saw:This data was found by spying on atomic bomb tests in the 1950s, not because we wanted to know about the guts of our planet...
Now, to the WWII part...

• Submarines like to hide underwater, so planes and ships can't find them.
  
• So, during WWII, our side tried dragging little magnetic sensing torpedo thingys from behind their ships, hoping to detect submarines. (they later used airplanes too).Here's what they found:
  

What the heck is this?
This might help:
Ok, let's break this down: 

• Between England and the US, they found stripes of North then South weak magnetic fields.
  
• When they got to the middle of the Atlantic (about where Iceland is on the map above), the pattern reversed.
  
• Huh?
  
• That's what they said too...
  
• Remember the shifting magnetic field every few thousand years?
  
• As the magma came out of the earth in the molten state, it solidified in the magnetic field of that time, so the newest lava was along the center of the ocean (under Iceland too).
  

Then, these strange magnetic stripe thingys showed up from the ships dragging those magnetic torpedoes....and it proved he was RIGHT

A bigger image: Note the right side, that would be the Andes

Check out this diagram: note the red cracks (spreading) and the blue arrows (subducting), esp. look at Chile---->So, connecting all of these dots, the plates are floating on the magma, some created at the mid-Atlantic ridge, others diving down under others in subduction zones....what about those subduction zones?

• Note the sticky stuff boiling up in red-this is why the Andesitic volcanoes are sticky, and always found near subduction zones (Andes, Cascades, Japan, Italy, etc.)
  
• Note also the trench where the subduction zone goes down: this is the origin of the Chilean/Peruvian trench we covered in the El Nino notes, as well as the deepest part of the ocean: the Marianas Trench, which is 7 MILES deep. 
  

Now put it all together:

Check this out:Historic data shows subduction zone quakes that would create a tsunami 1000' high or more on the Pacific northwest coast, flooding everything west of I-5.Here's how we know what is going on to form the Andes:
Look at all of the earthquakes (red dots) as the plate subducts
Two things to take-away about subduction zones:

• Usually in the middle of an oceanic plate, but can also be mid-continent (e.g. Yellowstone supervolcano caldera)
  
• Hot spots are basalt-low silica content which melts easier (e.g. look out the window)
  
• Look at the Hawaii island chain on google earth (underwater version)
  
• While you are at it, look for the Nuuanu landslide that created a 4000' tsunami (!) 1.5 my ago
  
• You can also look at the Mauna Loa simulated tsunami on youtube...
  

Note the tracking of the pacific plate:
This is what happens to a shield volcano when it "calves" one side, in this case, the northeast side, in the Nuuanulandslide, one of the largest landslides on earth, causing a tsunami that deposited coral on the top of Mt. Kaala, 4055 ft. high...Look at the debris field North-East of Oahu...

More about earthquakes:Three types of fault boundaries:Examples:then there's the famous "not-my" fault...Earthquakes:
How do we detect these?

• S waves travel by shear (Shear). 
  
• These are transverse waves, like a slinky. 
  
• They can only travel through solids.
  
• Remember this?
  

Ok, back to earthquakes.Suppose you have a house on posts (called "post and pier" construction). 
An earthquake happens some distance away. 
First, your house moves back and forth (P wave, much faster at 8 km/sec). 
After a time, your house bounces up and down from the S waves (slower at 3 km/second).
If you are far away, these are separated by different arrival times.If you are near the epicenter, they hit at the same time...up, over, down=your house is demolished
We use this difference to calculate distance from the epicenter (and hypocenter if you are interested) using delay times on the seismograph

• Look at the HPA Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) seismograph here:http://www.fdsn.org/networks/detail/PT/
  
• Our Elab quake network here: https://shakenet.raspberryshake.org/
  
• Hawaii quakes here:https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/hvo_earthquakes.html
  

Module 20: soils

• Igneous (fire)
  
• Sedimentary (layers)
  
• Metamorphic (Kafka rocks, just kidding: changed by heat and pressure)
  

Igneous= directly from magma, and can be either basalt (low melting point, like our island or oceanic plates) or granite (lighter, what continents are made of)Erosion can be by water or air (wind)
Soil Horizons:

Our Soil Sieve has 4 filters, with 5 layers:

1. la niña-trench (cutway)
2. why a trench and mountains there?
3. plate-subduction (cutaway)
4. why does it move?
5. convection-heat (flow)
6. where does the heat come from?
7. core-uranium (core)
8. where does uranium come from?
9. big bang-star-supernova-Fe+-uranium (periodic table)
10. so the core is radioactive? yes
11. how do we know?
12. earthquakes-nuclear testing (P and S waves)
13. how do we know the plates move?
14. submarine detectors WWII (magnetic ridges)
15. Plates are formed at ridges, subduction zones (mark on globe)
16. what are hotspots then? weak spots in the plates (Hawaii)
17. have they always moved? (yes, not always straight-Hawaii)
18. yes-wegener-fossils (fossils)
19. what was the supercontinent called? pangea (map)
20. continents float on crust, crust moves (cutaway)
21. plates go under continents, form Andesitic volcanoes (red cutaway)
22. hotspots are pure magma from the core, Basaltic volcanoes (cutaway)
23. where are these? (mark on globe)
24. how does this impact wine? (biomes+volcanoes)
25. why do we care? (agriculture=soils+water+temp)
26. plates moving: fault lines
27. two types: slip and transform
28. slip causes massive land based earthquakes (san andreas, SF 1906)
29. transform causes tsunamis (Bali quake, puako)
30. earthquakes: P and S waves (P S earth again)
31. epicenter vs. hypocenter (diagram)
32. how calculated? (exercise)
33. fracking and quakes (lubrication)
34. prediction (radon emissions)
35. tsunamis-transform faults or submarine landslides (diagram)
36. 600 mph, rise only when close to shore CV-64
37. tsunami=harbor+wave
38. Mauna Loa, Nuuanu slide

Why a trench and mountains there?
What is a subduction zone?How does it move? Convection

Where does the heat come from?
Why is it still hot? (Ussher 4000 years)
Where does the Uranium come from?
Which ones are formed in first generation stars?
Anything after that on the periodic table comes from a supernova:
So the core is radioactive? Yes.



How do we know the plates move?
What are hotspots then?
Here's the whole picture:
Have they always moved in the same direction? No:
How did Wegener's idea get proven? Fossils (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jVMLaR4GC-w)
Super continent was called PangeaAndesitic volcanoes have sticky magma, and can explode when they get stopped up (Vesuvius, Mt. St. Helens, Krakatoa) Also called strato volcanoes because they are so tall.

Transform faults caused the San Andreas quake 

Back to earthquakes:



AP exam question:

From our work on biomes, and next our work on plate tectonics, map the following on your globes:

1. look up where wine is grown on our planet
   
2. agriculture is based on what plants need and like: sunlight, temperature, water and soil
3. wine grows best in soils that are volcanic in origin (Andesitic)
4. wine also needs temperate zones and enough water
5. explore where these things intersect
6. challenge question: If you wanted to grow grapes for wine, knowing that climate change will move all biomes away from the equator, where would you buy land today?

Soils

physical aspects:

• Igneous rocks (fire)
  
• Sedimentary rocks (layers)
  
• Metamorphic rocks (Kafka rocks, just kidding: changed by heat and pressure)
  

Igneous Rocks:

• Comes directly from magma, and can be either basalt (low melting point, like our island or oceanic plates) or granite (lighter, what continents are made of)
• Granite breaks down into light-colored sand, makes for fertile soil. 
  
• Basalt (like Hawaii) can make sand too, but less fertile (e.g. black sand beach).
  
• Fun fact: you can melt any rock on our island (not coral)

Soil Horizons:
How to read this:

1. Water holding capacity: the amount of water held in the soil
   
2. Permeability: the ability for water to transit through the soil
   

Chemical aspects:

• neutral pH is 7.0
• Ca, Mg, Na and K are all soil bases, as they can counteract Al and H+
• soil acids stop growth, soil bases promote health
• the amount of bases in a soil is called Base Saturation and can be measured with pH
• High base saturation and high CEC will be productive

What comes along with this drainage?

• sediments: block sunlight from getting to plants in the water, lower dissolved oxygen
• nitrogen: causes algae blooms, then eutrophication
• phosphorus: major cause of eutrophication
• thermal pollution: lowers dissolved oxygen content in water
• pathogens: kill animals downstream
• drugs and chemicals: mutate creatures in the water body

• Bio-geo-chemical cycles: bio=life, geo=earth, chemical=chemical
  
• These are cycles as the go from some reservoir through the environment and back
  
• These are known as sources and sinks
• Often the reservoir will be the key to identifying the cycle
  

Carbon cycle:

Notice:

• fast processes involve living things (you eat sugar, exhale carbon dioxide)
• slow processes involve minerals, rocks and soil, hydrocarbons, and the oceans
• photosynthesis: light energy creates chemical energy (e.g. sugar)
• respiration: oxygen combines with sugar or other carbon fuel, releasing carbon dioxide and energy
• chemosynthesis: same process only using heat instead of light, sulfur instead of oxygen (look on periodic table)
• aerobic respiration: uses oxygen
• anaerobic respiration: uses carbon based fuels without oxygen, much less efficient
• carbon stored in the ocean as carbonate (H2CO3)
• carbon stored in corals as CaCO3
• carbon sediments can turn into fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) with time, heat and pressure
• steady state: sources and sinks are equal
• fossil fuel extraction: combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and energy (reverse of photosynthesis)
• released CO2 increases the heating of the earth:

This has caused the planet to warm like a greenhouse, since fossil fuels were used as fuel (coal, then oil and natural gas):

Nitrogen cycle:

• Nitrogen is in the air as N2, a diatomic molecule
  
• We can't metabolize this as is, it needs to be incorporated into plants or animals we eat.
  
• Nitrogen goes through many changes to get from the air to food, usually involving oxygen
  
• Nitrogen fixation "fixes" nitrogen in the air into forms plants can use, either biotically (living things) or abiotically (not living things):

Biotic process:

Phosphorus cycle:

Trick AP question: which cycle has no gas phase component? 
Dead zone, from watershed:

Water (hydrologic) cycle:

Note what drives this entire cycle is solar energy...

• Competition: one wins, one loses 
  
• Could be energy, food, mates, money, whatever
  
• Competitive exclusion principle: only one winner (assumes a limited resource)
  
• This impacts evolution: if there is overlap between two competitors for a limited resource, natural selection will favor the ones that don't overlap, since they don't have to compete for those resources:
  

This is called Resource partitioning (biologists love words like this)

• Recall: troph = food
  
• Autotrophs make their own food (photosynthesis)
  
• Examples: plants

Trophic levels explain how energy (food) moves up through a food chain

Simple food chain:

• Consumers are known as heterotrophs (hetero=not same, troph = food)
  
• Herbivores (herb=plant, vore=eat) eat plants, and are primary consumers
  
• Consumers that eat other consumers are known as carnivores (carne=meat, vore=eat) or secondary consumers
  
• Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers
  
• Apex predators have few predators for them, e.g. sharks, humans (cannibals don't count, and they don't eat clowns, they taste funny)
• Trophic levels are each stage up the food chain
  
• Only 10% of energy moves up each level (why?)
  • reproduction
  • metabolism (grazing etc.)
  • avoiding predators
  • romping with friends

Back to the 10% rule:Just like Marty had to romp around, and in some cases run away from Alex, some energy was used for other things (reproduction is included, though Marty did not have kids that we know of...)
Or this wetter version:

• Review of Biogeochemical cycles:
  
• https://elab.hpa.edu/apes/videos/bozeman_science/Biogeochemical%20Cycles.mp4
  
• Ecosystem ecology:
  
• https://elab.hpa.edu/apes/videos/bozeman_science/Ecosystem%20Ecology.mp4
  
• Energy flow in ecosystems:
  
• https://elab.hpa.edu/apes/videos/bozeman_science/Energy%20Flow%20in%20Ecosystems.mp4
  

We are moving from the physical sciences elements of environmental science into the biological elements. We'll follow these with studies of energy, health and pollution, including climate change.

The Bio modules:

• mod 6 Net Primary Productivity
  
• mod 7 trophic levels
  
• mod 1 competition
  
• 
  
• mod 8 biodiversity-M&Ms
  
• mod 9 ecosystem services
  
• mod 10 biogeography
  
• 
  
• mod 11 ecological tolerance
  
• mod 12 disruptions
  
• mod 13 adaptation
  
• mod 14 ecological succession
  
• 
  
• mod 15 population dynamics r, K
  
• mod 16 carrying capacity-lynx-hare
  
• mod 17 age distribution 
  
• mod 18 human population 

Net Primary Productivity: The rate of turning solar energy into organic materials

From last week: photosynthesis (water, CO2 based) or chemosynthesis (sulfur based) turn energy into organic compounds (light+water->sugar)

• Autotrophs= auto (self) troph (food)
  
• also known as Producers in the food chain
• GPP: gross primary productivity = all energy into all food
• NPP: net primary productivity = gross - energy of respiration
• Net is usually only 25-50% of gross (not much)
• Fun fact: your body is only about 33% efficient, the rest goes to heat
• Same with your gas powered car...

If this were a business, they would charge 20$ for a shirt, that cost them $12, so they only make $8 per shirt. Not good business.

This is most efficient where there is lots of solar radiation, biomass and water:

Net vs. Gross is easy to understand:

• If your business takes in money, this is your gross income, say 100$
  
• If your materials cost 20$, then your net income would be 80$
  

• Ecosystem services: processes by which clean water, timber, fisheries and ag crops are produced
  
• Provisions: goods humans can use: timber, food crops, plants
  
• Support systems: pollinators (bees), water filtration (soils)
  
• Cultural services: aesthetics (John Muir, Ansel Adams)
  
• Monetary value: lumber, fishing, tourism, ecotourism
  

Dependent on several factors:

• colonization: how many new species can make it to the island
• extinction: how many species die out
• distance from each other: greater separation=fewer species

All individuals have an ecological tolerance

Their best place is called a fundamental niche: a place where they not only survive, or survive and grow, but can reproduce:

• You can also see this as a "goldilocks zone" (same concept used to discover exoplanets that may host life)
  
• The actual place they live is a realized niche
  
• Climate change is causing animals which can migrate to meet their fundamental niche away from the equator
  
• This happens in plants, but since they cannot migrate this happens slower:
  

Changes beyond the organism tolerance can cause extinction (e.g. if they cannot migrate)

• Biggest was the Permian extinction about 250 my ago (see graph) likely caused by the Siberian Traps (PBS video I sent you)
  
• Next biggest was the K-T extinction about 65 my ago (dead dinos) caused by an asteroid the size of mount Everest hitting the Yucatan area (again, in the PBS video)
  
• Sixth mass extinction is the Anthropocene (human caused)
  
• PBS video: https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/video/ancient-earth-humans/

Three varieties of ecosystem disruptions (non human)

• Periodic: cycles of day, month, year
• Episodic: 100 year floods, sunspot cycles
• Random: Hurricanes, volcanic eruptions

Intermediate disturbance hypothesis:Intermediate disturbances favor a higher level of diversity (promotes generalists and speciation)

Implications of climate change:
Positive feedback: increased temp melts sea ice, reduces albedo, increased warming

Usually dependent on soil, water, light energy or temperature

Primary Succession example: drive up from the coast: lava->fountain grass->small bushes->large shrubs->small trees->large trees->forest canopy

• Note that bare lava (or other rock) can only support lichens and mosses
  
• In our case, dust from wind and fires lodges in crevasses in the lava
  
• Moisture collects there, enabling seeds to survive (fountain grass)
  
• As the fountain grass dies, burns, or other cycle, biomass builds in the cracks, holding water through a season
  
• Small bushes can then survive through a drought
  

Climax community: tree canopy forest or mature pond with sediment
Indicator species: impact of changes show up first in these, demonstrating impact of change (e.g. frogs in the Potomac River)

Review:

• Generalists can survive in a wide range of conditions
• Specialists exist in a narrow range
• Niche refers to this range where they can exist and reproduce

What does this mean?

Some math to understand this:Here's where the r comes from in the r-selected species:
Look at the formula:

∆N/∆t = rN(1-0) or ∆N/∆t = rN

• Density dependent factors: food, water, land
• Density independent factors: disasters (flood, fire)

Note that the predator peaks after the prey, then overshoots...saying that the change per instant of time of x at time t is proportional to the value of x(t), and x(t) has the initial value .

The differential equation is solved by direct integration:

so that 

• Carrying capacity for the earth: about 9 billion
  
• Malthus: exponential growth of population, linear growth of food supply (ignores innovation):
  

Population inputs: 

• Immigration
  
• Births 
  
• Aliens landing on earth
  

National population % growth rate =
[(CBR +immigration)- (CDR+ emigration)]/10

• In words this says all things coming in, minus all things going out, divided by ten is the national growth rate in percent (per hundred) 
• Births are easy to calculate (except in rural areas where some live, some don't and are rarely reported)
• Life expectancy: average number of years a newborn is expected to live
  
• Global: 73 years (70 men, 75 women)
  
• US: 79 years (76 men, 81 women)
  

Infant mortality: number of deaths for children under 1 year per 1000Age structure diagrams:

If the replacement ratio for stable population is 2.1 kids per woman (why?) is a parallel age structure diagram stable or declining?

This is also known as "replacement level fertility"

Total fertility rate: TFR: total number of children each woman will have in her lifetime between 15 and 49 (does not count men, divorce, death of spouse)

Time to visit gapminder.org: https://www.gapminder.org/tools/?from=world#$chart-type=bubbles&url=v1

Millenium UN goals: 

Recall exponential growth:

• At = Aoe^rt where r is the reproductive rate in % and Ao is the original population
  
• We need to know how fast a population is growing better than just % growth rate
  

Here's how:

Here's why:

• When the population doubles, the ratio of At/Ao is 2
  
• If At/Ao = 2 = e^rt  then ln 2 = rt = 0.693    (mysterious thing: look up the ln of 1/2 and 2, see?)
  
• so, 0.693 = rt, then t = 0.693/r
  
• since r is in percent, then 70/(growth rat in %) = time to double the population
  

IPAT: Impact = Population x Affluence x Technology

1. An r-selected species has a growth rate of 12%. If the initial population is 200, what will be the population at year 5? (hint: use the Nt = Noe^rt formula)
2. What is the doubling time for this population? (hint: use 70/% to get doubling time)
3. If the carrying capacity of a separate K selected species is 100, what will the slope of the growth curve look like when the population is 95?
4. What will it look like when the population is 120, and what do you call this?

Solution:

See also chapter 12 in Frog Book (iPad)

History of Agriculture:

• Hunter gatherer tribes 60,000 BCE: no fixed location, no cultivation, no domestication of animals
• First ag revolution 11,000 BCE: localization, cultivation of plants, domestication of animals (guns, germs, steel)
• Second ag revolution: 1600-1930: mechanization of planting, harvesting, storage, tractors, moved from subsistence farming (just for one family) to community farming
• Third ag revolution: 1940: Green revolution: used Nitrogen based petrochemical fertilizers (Haber process), petrochemical insecticides (nerve gases from WWII), irrigation and development of agribusiness:

Agribusiness: 

• just what it sounds like, the larger conglomerates taking over instead of smaller privately owned family farms.
  
• Often use monoculture crops to increase profits (economy of scale), as well as patented seeds and herbicides (e.g. "roundup ready corn")
  

Hybrid crops vs. GMO crops:

Started as a good thing: 

Hybrid crops"Selective breeding" works for animals (dogs, etc.) and crops called "hybrid crops" created by mixing pollen from one breed of plant (e.g. large kernel corn) with another breed of the same plant (e.g. short stalk corn) to form a "hybrid".
Green Revolution, Norman Borlaug-Mexican famine averted by development of hybrid (not GMO) wheat, called dwarf wheat (large kernel, short stalk).dwarf wheat
GMO crops:in the beginning were just to withstand frost, now into a larger patent issue with GMO seeds and "round up ready crops"What is the impact on lesser developed countries of this business model?

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are different: they are done by splicing one part of a gene from an organism (like a frost resistant bacteria) into a totally different species (like a tomato) to make it frost resistant."IP" means intellectual property

• Monsanto spends money creating GMOs, so they patent the process, meaning using their seeds requires an IP license from them (just like software).If your farm has these seeds, intentionally or by accident, you have to pay them.
  
• You also cannot "re-use" seeds in the next season without paying for them.
  
• This is just like software in that you could buy the software or pay a monthly fee to use it.
  
• Which makes more money for the company?
  
• What is the impact on poorer countries?
  

Roundup ready corn: seeds genetically modified to resist roundup (a herbicide)

• Result: plant their seeds, spray their herbicide and save money on weeding, more crops, more money (to whom?)
  
• Issue: exposure to roundup (a carcinogen) and possible impacts of mutated food
  
• Labeling? Where is this done so far?
  

GMO from Food inc.

High Fructose Corn Syrup: HFCS

• Corn Lobby is very powerful (Iowa=presidential primaries)
  
• Corn: HFCS (food, meat, fish) and Corn Ethanol (energy, fuel)
  
• HFCS is in everything
  
• Corn is used to feed cattle, pork, poultry, even fish
  
• Cattle are not used to metabolizing corn, it makes them sick
  
• Bad for humans, increases incidence of diabetesHFCS from Food inc.
  

Main farming problems: 

• Irrigation-desertification
• Pesticides-persistent organic pollutants (POPs)-like in your water hunt
• Fertilizers-eutrophication

Waterlogging: too much water in the soil, roots die (see hydroponics demo at elab, cycles water and air)

DDT:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
Inorganic fertilizers: also something from war (Haber process, WWI)

See also Chapter 11 in the Frog Book (iPad)

Check out windy.com, zoom forward to Wednesday Nov. 29

Tragedy of the commons:

• First use of the term: 1833, village commons overgrazed (what is a commons?)
  
• Garret Harding 1968: modern use of the term to describe any public resource that is abused (no ownership)
  
• Think of places like this in your life: dorm commons, locker room, student union
• Basic premise: if nobody "owns" the resource, it eventually becomes abused
• Tragedy: nobody wins (fun fact: look up the Greek origin of this word)
• Is private ownership a solution? Lahaina fires were fed by neglected invasive grasses in the privately owned lands uphill...
• Possible solution: community ownership

• Externality: shedding financial responsibility for your impact the the whole
  
• If your company produces pollution, and expects the community or government to clean it up, it costs you nothing, you have "externalized" your cost (the cost is "external" to your business)
• This could also be used to refer to a resource you use without paying for it
• Think of places this happens in our community...
• Create an example here in class: someone makes money doing something, the community pays the price
  

Note the highest slope (growth rate) in the middle (this also applies to other logistic growth curves, a regular AP exam question)

In the US, we classify public lands as 

• Rangelands-open range, enables some ranching with leases (like the series "Yellowstone")
  
• National forests-old growth and new growth, limited forestry 
  
• National parks-national treasures, limits on visitors, infrastructure (e.g. Denali)
  
• National wildlife refuges-usually associated with an endangered species or transit/migration path (e.g. wolves)
  
• Wilderness areas-no development, often noise abatement as well (think of helicopters in Waipio or Haleakala)

We have several of these national parks here in Hawaii: https://www.nps.gov/state/hi/index.htm

• Kilauea Volcano (Madame Pele)
  
• Haleakala ("House of the sun")
  
• Kaloko-Honokohau ("City of Refuge")
  
• Pearl Harbor 
  
• Pu'u Kohola (Whale Heiau)
  
• Papa hanau moku a kea-Northwest Hawai'ian Islands NWHI
  
• Ala Kahakai (shore trail on this island)
  

Federal lands: owned by the people, but can be leased to individuals

Two ethics are in competition:

• USFS (US Forest Service) believes in regular forest fires to deplete the amount of underbrush (as in nature)
  
• See also California and Australia wildfires: drought, no regular fires, buildup of underbrush
  
• See Yellowstone fire of 1988-result of overgrowth of underbrush
  
• Also 2009 SoCal fires and 2000 Los Alamos fires accident
• https://www.northcountrypublicradio.org/news/npr/94114095/series-overview-yellowstone-s-evolution
  

Classifications: note recreation is part of each

• Rangeland: open dry grasslands for grazing
  
• Forests: land dominated by trees
  
• Clear-cutting: all trees, regrowth is all same age trees, promotes erosion, wildfires (litter)
  
• Selective cutting: older trees first
  

Recall our main themes: energy->water->food->culture

Food!

Three main groups: 

• Proteins: always include Nitrogen
  
• Carbohydrates: CHO in chains (starches) or simple (sugars)
  
• Fats: CHO again, but in a special branch structure (glycol backbone) that is good for energy storage and insulation (e.g. killer whales, eskimos)
  

Proteins: complex molecules of CHO and N. 

• Look up amino acids, note the common structure.
  
• Now look up the amino acid methionine. 
  
• What element does it contain as well? 
  
• Why do rotten eggs, swamps (and Kilauea volcano) stink?
  

CHO=carbohydrates (clever name), 

• usually in a chain, short chains are sugars (used for fuel), 
  
• longer ones are starches and can be used for structures (e.g. cellulose in plants) or pasta...
  
• smallest: sugars, all end in -ose (glucose, sucrose) LOOK THESE UP, CHECK OUT THEIR MOLECULE SHAPE
  
• glucose is a "monosaccharide" created by photosynthesis
  
• longer chains: starches (rice, pasta) slowly digested (see diabetics, and glycemic index)
  
• structural CHO: cellulose-little boxes with goo inside, need enzymes to break these down (cows)
  
• ENZYMES ALL END IN -ASE
  

Fats/lipids: same chemical structure as CHO, but built along a glycol (alcohol) backbone. 

• If the fats have long carbon chains with only single bonds, they are saturated (lots of Hydrogen atoms) and can hold together (e.g. animal fat)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_fat
  
• If the long chains have double bonds and don't fit together, they melt easier (e.g. oils) and are called "unsaturated", usually better for your health.
  
• n.b. McDonalds® got into real hot water a while ago for frying all of their stuff in "supersaturated fats". Ugh...
  

Notes: Frog book

• Frog 12.3 Agriculture
• Frog 12.4 Food Production

Nutritional needs-what humans on our planet need, and what they lack

20 kg of grain to produce 1 kg of beef (20:1 factor, or subsidy factor 20x)
2.8 kg of grain to produce 1 kg of chicken (2.8:1 factor, or subsidy factor of 2.8)
Better to eat beef, chicken, fish or tofu? (you need protein in some form)

Industrial Farming (and fishing)
Agribusiness: 

• Just what it sounds like, the larger conglomerates taking over instead of smaller privately owned family farms.
  
• Often use monoculture crops to increase profits (economy of scale), as well as patented seeds and herbicides (e.g. "roundup ready corn")
  

Hybrid crops vs. GMO crops:

Started as a good thing: 

Hybrid crops"Selective breeding" works for animals (dogs, etc.) and crops called "hybrid crops" created by mixing pollen from one breed of plant (e.g. large kernel corn) with another breed of the same plant (e.g. short stalk corn) to form a "hybrid".
Green Revolution, Norman Borlaug-Mexican famine averted by development of hybrid (not GMO) wheat, called dwarf wheat (large kernel, short stalk).dwarf wheat
GMO crops:in the beginning were just to withstand frost, now into a larger patent issue with GMO seeds and "round up ready crops"What is the impact on lesser developed countries of this business model?

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are different: they are done by splicing one part of a gene from an organism (like a frost resistant bacteria) into a totally different species (like a tomato) to make it frost resistant."IP" means intellectual property

• Monsanto spends money creating GMOs, so they patent the process, meaning using their seeds requires an IP license from them (just like software).If your farm has these seeds, intentionally or by accident, you have to pay them.
  
• You also cannot "re-use" seeds in the next season without paying for them.
  
• This is just like software in that you could buy the software or pay a monthly fee to use it.
  
• Which makes more money for the company?
  
• What is the impact on poorer countries?
  

Roundup ready corn: seeds genetically modified to resist roundup (a herbicide)

• Result: plant their seeds, spray their herbicide and save money on weeding, more crops, more money (to whom?)
  
• Issue: exposure to roundup (a carcinogen) and possible impacts of mutated food
  
• Labeling? Where is this done so far?
  
• Transgenic seeds?
• Can you patent life?
• GMO from Food inc.

• Corn Lobby is very powerful (Iowa=presidential primaries)
  
• Corn: HFCS (food, meat, fish) and Corn Ethanol (energy, fuel)
  
• HFCS is in everything
  
• Corn is used to feed cattle, pork, poultry, even fish
  
• Cattle are not used to metabolizing corn, it makes them sick
  
• Bad for humans, increases incidence of diabetes
• HFCS from Food inc.
  

Main farming problems: 

• Irrigation-desertification
• Pesticides-persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
• Fertilizers-eutrophication

Waterlogging: too much water in the soil, roots die (see hydroponics demo at elab, cycles water and air)DDT:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
Inorganic fertilizers: also something from war (Haber process, WWI)

Mod 33: Sustainable agriculture (fishing too)

• Desertification (see above)
  
• intercropping vs. monocropping, see "the three sisters"
  
• Contour cropping: saves space, reduces runoff, preserves top soil (e.g. our garden, most of Asia)
  
• No-till ag: same idea, retains organic material in topsoil, reduces erosion by wind and water
• IPM: integrated pest management (see Lalamilo Farmers)
  
• Organic agriculture (also mentioned in Portlandia and Colin the Chicken)More than just N-P-K, also micronutrients, slower release time, low salinity
  
• CAFO: concentrated animal feed operation (e.g. chickens, pigs, cattle)Usually inorganic feed (purines), hormones and other drugs
  

• Methyl xanthines: caffeine, theobromine, theophyllineevolved plant poisons for insects:
  

• Xanthine: group name
• Caffeine: energy drinks, coffee, soft drinks (to offset drowsiness from insulin spike)
• Theobromine: chocolate
• Theophylline: tea (also a bronchodilator-helps breathing)

Actually, almost anything that ends in -ine is usually a plant poison evolved to kill insects:

• nicotine: tobacco
• caffeine: coffee, tea
• cocaine: coca plants

• Genetic Diversity: genetic variation among individuals in a population (e.g. redheads, blondes, black hair)
  
• Species Diversity: number of species in an ecosystem (moose, wolf, bear)
  
• Habitat Diversity: number of habitats in an ecosystem (forest, plains, swamp)
  

• Genetic variation occurs because reproduction is always a combination of factors: genetics, environment, even lifestyle (kinin potentiation: health impacts genetic variation)
  
• When a population suffers a massive reduction in population (e.g. whales being hunted) the total genetic variation in the remaining population is lower.
  
• This is called a Population bottleneck
• This makes them vulnerable to disease and threats that apply to that limited gene pool.
  
• A greater genetic variation, like ideas, makes for a richer population, able to survive and thrive in different challenging conditions.
  
• They are also able to diversify food sources, shelter and the ability to withstand environmental challenges.
  
• The opposite of this biodiversity has a perfect example: monocropping, where one threat can wipe out an entire group of crops (no diversity)
  
• Habitat diversity has two categories: specialists and generalists
• Specialists can only live in certain limited conditions, and tend to be located in niches
• Generalists can live in many conditions, and many invasive species tend to be generalists
• Species richness means many different species in an ecosystem
• Species evenness means no one species takes over

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